Mbjkna毕业论文外文翻译资料样例.docx

秋风清，秋月明,落叶聚还散,寒鸦柄复惊。西安建筑科技高校华清学院毕业设计（论文）外文资料翻译院（系）:.经贸系专.业：市场普循姓名：许芳学号I外文出处：DOnaIdHaITiSandDeniS（用外文一uTaHiaContract1.aWTOday.1995附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文完成日期：2010年3月25日onlyindetai1fromonestatetoanther.Whileitisstillprimarilycaselaw,anincreasingnumberofstatutesdealwithparticularproblems.TheUniformCommercialCode,forexample,containssomespecialprovisionsontheformationofcontractsforthesaleofgoods.AndbytheTuckerActof1887,asamended,oneofthemostsignificantofthefederalstatutesinthefield,theUnitedStatesgovernmenthaswaiveditssovereignimmunityincontractactionsbyconsentingtosuitinthefederalcourts.Someruleslaiddownbystatute,andbycaselawaswell,aremandatoryorcompu1soryandcannotbeavoidedbytheparties,whiIeothersareimplicative,interpretative,orSuppIetoryandcanbevariedbyagreement.Acontractmaybesimplydefinedasapromiseforthebreachofwhichthelawgivesaremedy,althoughthewordcontract',nayalsobeusedtorefertotheseriesofactsbywhichthepartiesexpressedtheiragreement,tothedocumentwhichtheymayhaveexecuted,ortothelegalrelationswhichhaveresulted.Notallpromiseareenforceableandseveralcriteriamustbemetbeforethelawwillgivearemedy.TwoofthemostfundamentalofthesearetherequirementofawritingandrequirementofConsideration.therequirementofaWrilingisimposedbystatutesoffrauds,derivedfromtheEnglishStatuteofFraudsof1677twhichhavebeenenactedthroughouttheUnitedStates.TypicallytheyProVidethat,withsomeexceptions,specifiedkin(isofcontractsareunenforceableunlessevidencedbyawriting.TheyusualIycovercontractstosellgoodsofmorethanaminimumvalue,contractstosellland,contractstoanswerforlhedebtofanother,andcontractsnottobeperfo11nedwithinayear.Manyagreements,suchasmostcontractstofurnishservices,arenotincludedandareenforceableevenifthereisnowriting.AlthoughdissatisfactionhasledtotherepealofmostoftheEnglishStatuteofFraudsin1954,therehasbeennoseriousmovementforitsabolitionintheUnitedStates.apartfromanyrequirementofawriting,apromiseisnotgenerallyenforceableintheUnitedStatesunlessitissupportedbyconsideration.HistoricalIyapromissorycouldmakeabindingwrittenpromise,evenwithoutconsideration,byaffixinghiswaxsealtothewriting.Butasthewaxsealwasreplacedbyapennedorprintedimitation,thesealbecameanemptyformalityanditseffectivenesshasnowbeeneliminatedoratleastgreatlydiminishedbystatestatutes.Considerationisessentiallysomethingforwhichthepromisorhasbargainedandwhichhehasreceivedinexchangeforhisownpromise.11maybeanotherpromisegiveninreturn,inwhichcasetheresultingcontractisknownasabilateralcontract,oritnaybeanactgiveninreturn,inwhichcasetheresultingcontractisknownasunilateralcontract.But,forexample,agratuitouspromise,includingonetopayforgoodsorserviceswhichhavealreadysupportedbyconsideration.FortunatelythereareonlyafewsuchinstancesofbusinesspromisesinwhichtherequirementofConsiderationisnotmet.Oneofthemosttroublesomeinvolvesthe"firm”,orirrevocable,offer.TheusualruleintheUnitedStatesisthatanofferorhasthepowertorevokehisofferatanytimebeforeitsacceptancebytheofferee,andapromisebytheofferornottorevokeisnotgeneralIyeffectiveunlesssupportedbyconsideration.Acommondeviceforholdingtheofferortohispromiseisthepaymenttohimofanominalsum,forexampleonedollar,asconsiderationforwhatisthenknownasan“option."EvenwithoutConsiderationafewcourtshaveheldthattheofferorwasestopped,orprecluded,fromrevokinghisofferwheretheoffereereliedtohisdetrimentuponthepromise.Butthemostsatisfactorysolutionhasbeenthroughlegislation,adoptedinanumberofstates,makinganofferirrevocable,regardlessofconsideration,ifiIisembodiedinasignedwritingwhichstatesthatitisirrevocable.Asthissuggests,thetendencyhasbeentoattempttoremedythedeficienciesofthedoctrineofconsiderationratherthantodiscardit.IntheIniledStates,contracts,likestatutes,arecharacteristicallydetailedandprolix.Thosepreparedbylawyersareoftencompoundedofstandardclauses,popularlyknownas“boiler-plate,''takenfromotheragreementskeptonfileorfrombooks.Evenwhenalawyerisnotdirectlyinvolved,thepartiesmayuseorincorporatebyreferenceastandardprintedformwhichhasbeendraftedbyalawyer,perhapsforaparticularenterprise,perhapsforanassociationofenterprises,orperhapsforsaletothegeneralpublic.Thisattentiontodetailmaybeduetoanumberofcauses,includingthestandardizationofroutinetransactions>thefrequentinvolvementoflawyersinallstagesofexceptionaltransactions,theinclinationtouselanguagewhichhasbeentestedinpreviouscontroversies,andthedesiretoavoiduncertaintywhenthelawofmorethanonestatemaybeinvolved.Al1oftheseaddtothegeneraldispositionofthecase-orientedAmericanlawyertoprovideexpresslyforspecificdisputeswhichhaveariseninthepastorwhichmightbeforeseeninthefuture.Arelatedphenomenonisthewidespreaduseofstandardfoimsftcontractsofadhesion,“suchastickets,leases,andretailsalescontracts,whichareforceduponthepartywithinferiorbargainingpower.Inrecentyears,courtsandlegislatureshavebecomeincreasinglyconcernedwiththeeffectswhichunrestrainedfreedomofcontractnayhaveinsuchsituations.Courtswhichhadalwaysrefusedtoenforceagreementscontemplatingcrimes,torts,orotheractswhichwereclearlycontrarytothepublic